Three Kingdoms:
The impact it had on modern China
By
Qingsheng Gao (Tim)
The Three Kingdoms is a historical period after the fall of the great Han dynasty. The nation of China is once again separated and divided into three kingdoms. The kingdom of Wei is ruled by Cao Cao, a great strategist, and will eventually reunite China. The kingdom of Shu, ruled by Liu Bei, shares the dream of restoring the Han dynasty to its full glory. Lastly, the kingdom of Wu, ruled by Sun Quan, is located in Southern China. These three kingdoms formulate the period after the Han dynasty and a power struggle lasting roughly from 220 AD – 280 AD. The three kingdoms period was not popularized until a man named Luo Guanzhong wrote the novel. Luo Guanzhong was estimated to have lived during the succession from the late Yuan dynasty to the early Ming dynasty (Moss, 2). Luo Guanzhong’s Three Kingdoms cannot be considered an accurate description of history and thus it is a novel. Luo Guanzhong’s Three Kingdoms is a blend of Guo’s personal values, history, fiction, and an artistic portrayal of heroism. The mixture of history and fiction has made the Three Kingdoms novel popular among later descendents of China. For instance, during the Yuan dynasty, the three kingdoms period was popularized in the form of many plays. The later generations of the Chinese continue to enjoy plays and other forms of entertainment influenced by the Three Kingdoms.
China has grown rapidly over the past couple of decades, and the increase in its wealth has enabled China to pursue new technologies. The Three Kingdoms has been made into multiple movies, TV dramas, animated films, and even video games. Each of these new technologies provided new ways to portray historical events and individual heroism. Using these new technologies to illustrate the Three Kingdoms is far more rewarding than simply reading about it on pages. The youth of modern China nowadays is not as interested in reading books and most young people are not familiar with the Three Kingdoms. However, new technologies are enabling young people to be interested in the Three Kingdoms without having to read the novel. For instance, the video game industry is making the Three Kingdoms enjoyable while expounding upon the history behind the games.
Chinese theatre has existed for centuries and many fascinating plays were created. Chinese theatre uses a wide range of dramatic and exotic techniques to express characters movements and gestures. The Chinese theatre uses many techniques that are exotic and intriguing to the West. For example, traditional Chinese theatre uses a “square stage surrounded on three sides by the audience” (Scott, 1958). Plays are accompanied by music, which are played with traditional instruments such as the erhu. In many modern theatrical plays or musicals, the actors and singers are led by the music. In Chinese theatre, the music accompanies the actors and it enhances the performance of the actors. Nevertheless, the most important aspect of Chinese theatre is the actors themselves. Similar to traditional Western plays, women’s roles are played by men and men’s roles are also played by men. Eventually, women were allowed to perform in Chinese theatre and take on female roles after the revolution of 1911 (Scott, 1958). Now, let us look into Chinese theatre with a deeper understanding of its finer points.
Chinese theatre portrays its characters by using elaborate makeup designs and specific patterns drawn on the faces of actors. One of the most used settings of Chinese theatre is the Three Kingdoms period. Since the Three Kingdoms period consists of many historical heroes and villains, and makeup use to paint the faces of heroes and villains are very different. For instance, Guan Yu who represents courage, righteousness, and loyalty is distinctively illustrated by the technique of the makeup. An actor who plays Guan Yu usually has their face painted red and wears a great long black beard. The red face of Guan Yu represents fidelity and the long black beard represents Guan Yu’s bravery. The red face paint is painted appropriately with different patterns and certain patterns are associated with individual characters. The long black beard does not necessarily symbolize Guan Yu’s age. Sometimes young and old characters wear beards and other times they do not, the beard represents different styles of character and their qualities. Thus, Guan Yu is widely known to have a red painted face and wearing a long black beard.
Music within the Chinese theatre is another important aspect and is one of the most difficult skills to be mastered. The music in Chinese theatre represents a literary purpose and actors often recite poetry and other passages (Scott, 1958). Singing is accompanied by traditional Chinese instruments, and the actors perform specific movements that are related to the singing. There are two categories of dancing in Chinese theatre and they are separated into wen and wu (Scott, 1958). The wen style of dancing can be described as refined and graceful and is accompanied by string and wind instruments. Additionally, actors who play the wen style are also talented in singing. On the other hand, the wu style of dancing is more energetic and robust. The wu style of dancing is accompanied by percussion instruments and the actors perform with weapons. These two styles are considerably different from one another and certain plays are well fitted to one style than the other.
In addition, there are many other aspects of Chinese theatre that gives character and essence to the actor’s performance. The movements of performers are the life and soul of Chinese theatre. For example, actors who play the wen roles are expected to master all their movements from simple gestures to facial expressions. Actors must be able to master their entire body to carry out subtle gestures such as “sleeve movements, hand and finger gestures, posturing and stage fighting, and innumerable decorative actions that involve the whole of the actor’s body from his feet to the eyes” (Scott, 1958). Subtle gestures convey symbolic meanings to the character presented and these gestures may be common among certain male or female roles.
Costumes are the final touches to signify the character’s social status and gender. Although there are many and complicated costumes, in reality, the number of styles are limited in variations. Male and female costumes are often equivalent to one another in its complexity, except for its various color and decoration. However, footwear is one piece of clothing that is essentially the same for either gender. A flat soled slipper is usually worn by both genders whether informal, formal, indoor, or outdoor (Scott, 36). The theatre’s lavish costumes attract attention of the audience and the plays appear far more majestic. Chinese theatre costumes are clearly exaggerated to glorify characters and to impress audience.
Many Chinese theatre plays created from the Three Kingdoms era are still very popular with audiences in modern China. But why are such old plays still able to attract the attention of modern Chinese people? In any case, many plays derived from the Three Kingdom era were influenced by Lou Guanzhong’s classic novel of the Three Kingdoms. The Three Kingdoms creates a perfect setting since it has many events portraying bravery, courage, and tactics used by historical figures. Heroes and villains are a major contribution to create a great play in Chinese theatre and the Three Kingdoms era has many to offer. One thing that attracts modern audience is the heroism portrayed by famous heroes and the battle between good and evil still remains as intriguing as it happened in the novel. Another aspect is that the singing of Peking opera is combined with the subtle movements portrayed by the Three Kingdoms plays. Peking opera attracts older generation Chinese because they have already developed an understanding of the singing and it continues to gather newer audiences.
One of the most famous events taken place in the Three Kingdoms era is Zhuge Liang’s strategy of an ungraded city. In fact, the famous strategy of an unguarded city is widely known by the Chinese people and was made into a play. The play’s main role, Zhuge Liang, celebrated as the greatest military strategist of all time and came up with an ingenious plan to escape the opposing force. Zhuge Liang appears in many Chinese plays and is wears the same costume. He is usually dressed in a “rich blue, or alternatively purple, satin robe heavily embroidered in gold with the Eight Mystic Symbols, the cabalistic signs famous in China” (Scott, 1958). Along with the costume, “he wears the hat of a Taoist scholar, patterned with the yin and yang symbol, a circular motif divided into two segments which represent the interaction of the celestial and earthly principles” (Scott, 1958). The symbol of the yin and yang are attached to the front and back of his costume. His character is always portrayed with a full black beard and in one hand he always carries a feather fan with him.
The strategy of an unguarded city occurs when the kingdom of Shu and the kingdom of Wei are locked in battle to secure a key point. The defending army of the Shu kingdom was surrounded by the attacking armies of Wei. Being outnumbered by the armies of Wei, Zhuge Liang had to think on his feet to come up with an ingenious plan to escape his attackers. Zhuge Liang ordered his remaining men to open the city gates and equipped them with brooms and had them sweep in front of the opened gates. Then Zhuge Liang climbs to the top of the city gates and starts to play the guzheng. Once the advancing enemy force reaches the gate, the general cannot believe the sight he is witnessing. Zhuge Liang not only played his guzheng calmly, he also invited the enemy general to come inside the city and enjoy the music by claiming that the streets are sweep for your arrival. Taken by utter surprise, the enemy general concluded that it must be a trap thought out by the great strategist. Thus, the enemy general retreated to a strategic point and set up camp until further notice. And the retreat of the Wei army enabled the army of Shu to obtain victory.
The play takes place at the time when the Zhuge Liang is at the top of the city gates playing his guzheng and the advancing general Si Ma Yi. The actors take their positions and a famous and well known dialogue is exchanged between the two actors. The dialogues between the two actors are carried out in a steady tempo and a symphony of vocal talent and rhythm. The actor in the play, through his dialogue reveals the intelligence and genius of Zhuge Liang. Aside from Zhuge Liang’s ingenious plan to escape the attacking army, dressed as a Taoist priest, it also acknowledges his spiritual powers. A mixture of a genius military strategist and the power of a Taoist priest enabled Zhuge Liang to escape a dreadful fate. Thus, the audiences appreciate the play because it has two key factors, the heroic Zhuge Liang showing his intelligence and good triumphing over evil.
One of the most famous series of plays of the Romance of the Three Kingdoms, The Meeting of Many heroes, provides another intellectual representation of Zhuge Liang (Scott, 1957). The first episode of the chapter, A Battle of Words with a Gathering of the Literati, was a gathering of intellectuals in the kingdom of Wu. The attendees gathered at the headquarters of Wu tried to denounce Zhuge Liang and his plan to oppose the kingdom of Wei. But the plan backfired and Zhuge Liang showed his superior knowledge over all other intellectuals present at the gathering. Not only was Zhuge Liang able to silence his opposition, he was also able to convince his critics of his reasoning.
In episode two, it describes the military strategist Zhou Yu of the Wu kingdom and his brilliant plan to dispose of Cao Cao’s two important tacticians. Zhou Yu wrote a phony letter with forged signatures of the two tacticians to Cao Cao, hoping that in Cao Cao’s anger would kill his two tacticians. In this play Zhou Yu was hailed as the hero and Cao Cao as the villain. However, in episode three Zhou Yu is portrayed as a jealous man of Zhuge Liang’s ability. Zhou Yu decided to challenge Zhuge Liang by asking him to prepare one hundred thousand arrows within ten days and if he failed there would be serious consequences. Instead, Zhuge Liang requested that three days would be sufficient to gather all the arrows. Without doing a single thing for two days straight, a member of the Wu kingdom feared for Zhuge Liang’s life and accompanied him on the third day. On the final day, Zhuge Liang requested twenty boats with a few hundred soldiers and lots of straws (Scott, 189). The boats were padded with straws on both sides and were sailed towards Cao Cao’s forces. The day was foggy and Zhuge Liang uses the fog to shield his boats and men from the enemy’s sight. Zhuge Liang ordered his men to beat the drums and shout out loud to give away their positions. Unable to physically see the enemy, Cao Cao’s forces fired their arrows in their general direction. When one side of the boat was stacked with the enemy’s arrows, Zhuge Liang had the boats rotate to the other side and continued gathering arrows. While arrows are being gathered, Zhuge Liang and the member of Wu sit inside their boat enjoying a few drinks. The scene depicted by this part of the story always fills the audience with amazement, awe, and laughter. In the end, Zhuge Liang was able to gather all ten thousand arrows and then some and earned the respect of the jealous Zhou Yu.
This series continues for another two episodes before it ends with the defeat of Cao Cao and his entire army. The latter two episodes continue to praise Zhuge Liang’s brilliance and the jealousy of Zhou Yu. Zhou Yu is concerned with Zhuge Liang and his abilities but still considers him a rival and a future enemy of the Wu kingdom. However, it is undeniable that Zhuge Liang is a brilliant man and a great military strategist of his time. Zhuge Liang’s clever bag of tricks and strategies continues to amaze the people of modern China. The older generations of Chinese still enjoy these plays because they are accustomed to them and do not find popular modern entertainment fulfilling. On the other hand, the younger generations are being drawn to Chinese theatre because they enjoy action and the idea that good will always triumph over evil. The most important concepts of these plays are the fact that they are inspiring to the audience. Especially to the younger generations, the heroes in these plays encourage the audience to follow in their footsteps and portray the same heroism and courage the heroes have.
Certain individuals even consider some of the heroes to be their role models and some even idolized certain heroes to a God. This is a perfect transition into the next segment about a hero from the Romance of the Three Kingdoms who became the embodiment of Confucian philosophy and was made into a God.
China was and continues its tradition as a society with Confucian values, ideals, and philosophy. Thus, the Chinese people decided to personify the Confucian philosophy into something tangible. The Chinese made Confucian philosophy tangible was by idolizing Guan Yu as the God of War. But why did the Chinese choose Guan Yu as the God of War instead of other heroes during the Three Kingdoms era? First, let us explore the character Guan Yu and his role in the Three Kingdoms era.
The story of Guan Yu begins when he meets Liu Bei for the first time and exchange mutual greetings. According to The Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Guan is the surname and Yu is the given name and his style is Changsheng or Yunchang which was changed at a later time (Moss, 8). After the introductions, Liu Bei told Guan Yu about his imperial blood relations and his ambition to reunite China. Guan Yu took great interests in Liu Bei’s ambition and decided to join him on his journey and dreams. Zhang Fei who was present at the same time invited Liu Bei and Guan Yu to his peach tree garden where they would swear oaths of blood brothers. This is one of the most famous sections of the Romance of the Three Kingdoms when Liu Bei, Guan Yu, and Zhang Fei swears oath to each other under the peach tree garden.
Guan Yu is considered by many fans as the most courageous, honorable, and loyal hero of the Three Kingdom era. His acts of courage, honor, and loyalty are depicted by Luo Guanzhong’s Three Kingdoms throughout the entire book. For instance, when Guan Yu was captured by Cao Cao, he stayed loyal to Liu Bei when Cao Cao offered Guan Yu to join his ranks and abandon his brothers. Cao Cao who treasured talented individuals wanted Guan Yu to fight under his leadership was unable to change Guan Yu’s determination to follow his sworn brothers. This was a significant event because even in the face of death, Guan Yu refused to break his oath and he would rather die than to betray his brothers. This followed the Confucian ideal that one should only serve one master and never serve a second master.
Guan Yu’s courage is portrayed on the battlefield as a fierce general who will raise his troop’s morality and lead them to victory. As one of the great generals of the Shu kingdom, Guan Yu has to show leadership to his subordinates and guide them in the right directions. The best example to represent his courage on the battlefield was when Guan Yu was struck by a poison arrow in his arm. When they removed the arrow from his arm, Guan Yu’s life was still in danger because the poison from the arrow has already spread to his bones. In order to fully remove the poison from his body, the doctor needed to cut open his am and use a knife to chisel the buildup of poison on his bone. But they were still on the battle and the doctor does not have the proper medicine to sedate Guan Yu in order to operate. However, Guan Yu simply suggested to the doctor to openly operate on his arm. The doctor warned him of the extreme amount of physical pain it will cause and the need for Guan Yu to be relaxed. Responding back, Guan Yu insisted the doctor to continue the operation and the amount of pain and relaxed state will not be of concern. Skeptical, the doctor proceeded with the operation while Guan Yu was sitting and having a drink of his own. This greatly surprised the doctor and amazed all other spectators around the operation. Guan Yu showed his tremendous courage to his men and indirectly raising their moral for the upcoming battle once he has fully recovered.
Guan Yu is one of the most respected heroes during the Three Kingdom period and he maintains this position with his honor. Guan Yu has performed many honorable deeds throughout his legacy. As a warrior and commander, Guan Yu respects the honor code of fighting and will never attack an enemy from behind. Even though the villains of the Three Kingdoms did not follow the honor code of fighting, Guan Yu nonetheless kept his honor and never betrayed it. One of the great acts of Guan Yu’s honor was when Cao Cao was retreating after his defeat at Chi Bi. The entire force of the Wei Kingdom was defeated by the combine strength of the Shu and Wu kingdoms and Cao Cao was forced to retreat. During the retreat of Cao Cao, he encountered Guan Yu and pleaded to let him escape. Previously, Guan Yu was held hostage by Cao Cao but was released soon after and to honor Cao Cao’s grace, Guan Yu let Cao Cao escape with his handful of men. Although it was a great opportunity for Guan Yu to kill Cao Cao and eliminate one of the opposing kingdoms, Guan Yu choose honor and let Cao Cao escape with his life.
As Guan Yu’s story of loyalty, courage, and honor is portrayed in many of the events of the Three Kingdoms, Chinese people continue to admire and dwell on those events. To honor Guan Yu and his deeds during the Three Kingdoms era, the people of China made Guan Yu into a God who is still worshipped as of today. Guan Yu was worshipped as early as the Sui Dynasty and is one of the Gods originally created by the Chinese people. Also, he was worshipped as a bodhisattva in Buddhism and a guardian deity in Taoism. Guan Yu is also referred to sometimes as the God of War because he was an outstanding general. However, unlike the Western perception that the God of War will bless anyone who wants to be victorious in battle, the Chinese God of War represents righteousness and the honor code.
Guan Yu is commonly referred to as Guan Gong, and the literal translation means “The Lord of Guan.” The worship of Guan Gong has been spread throughout East Asia especially to countries that were under China’s sphere of influence. One of the main temples of Guan Gong was built in Xiezhou, Shanxi and the temple was built to imitate a palace fitting for an emperor. Other smaller versions of the temple are built in other areas of mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan. More temples were built in Vietnam, South Korea, Japan, and even recently San Francisco and New York City. Guan Yu was given many honorable titles by different historical figures throughout Chinese history. For example, the second emperor of Shu Han gave Guan Yu the title of Marquis Zhuangmou. The Emperor of Song Dynasty gave Guan Yu the title of Duke Zhonghui and later named Prince Zhuangmou Yiyong Wu’an Yingji. After the fall of the Song Dynasty and during the control of the Yuan Dynasty, the Mongols gave Guan Yu the title of Prince of Xianling Yiyong Wu’an Yingji. Guan Yu’s reputation did not cease there and it continued to climb as the dynasties were overturned one after another. The most prestigious title bestowed upon Guan Yu was during the Ming Dynasty when the emperor named Guan Yu the Saintly Emperor Guan the Great God Who Subdues Demons of the Three Worlds and Whose Awe Spreads Far and Moves Heaven (三界伏魔大神威遠震天尊關聖帝君). The title was further expanded to The Grand Emperor Zhongyi Shenwu Lingyou Renyong Weixian Huguo Baomin Jingcheng Suijing Yizan Xuande Guan Sheng Dadi (仁勇威顯護國保民精誠綏靖翊贊宣德忠義神武關聖大帝).
Commonly worshipped in modern China, Guan Gong has become a household idol and symbol similar to Jesus in Western households. Guan Gong is worshipped by all kinds of people in China and there are some interesting examples. In Hong Kong, Guan Gong is worshipped by city police and the Triads. However, there are several differences between the Guan Gong worshipped by the police and the Triads. One can distinguish the difference by determining which arm Guan Gong holds his weapon. If the right arm holds the weapon then it is worshipped by the police because it represents righteousness. On the other hand, if the weapon is held in the left arm then it is worshipped by the Triads. The Guan Gong statue used by the Triads show a more sinister facial expression, and they believe that Guan Yu’s code of honor is even present in the underworld.
On a different note, Guan Gong is also worshipped as the God of Wealth. Many Chinese businessmen worship Guan Gong for financial stability and success because they believe Guan Gong will bless the righteous and protect the righteous from malevolence. It is believed that Guan Gong is able to grant another life to those who are worthy. The belief started when the story of Guan Yu and his generous act of allowing Cao Cao to escape after his defeat of Red Cliff. Guan Gong has found a very comfortable position in the lives of common and distinguished folks, but he is still worshipped by all kinds of people despite their backgrounds.
The appearance of Guan Gong is distinctive and unique. Similar to the appearance of Guan Yu in Chinese theatre, Guan Gong is generally dressed in a green robe and carries his mighty two-handed weapon at all times. The most symbolic aspect of Guan Gong is his red face and many speculations surround the origin of the red face. Some speculate that Guan Gong’s red face is the expression of righteous anger. Others speculate that Guan Gong’s red face is his physical representation to act out justice and help the common people (Lin, 2000).
Another good example as to why modern Chinese people pray to Guan Gong is that he was a physical and concrete character rather than someone abstract. Also, Guan Gong never trusted luck and he believed in his own abilities than to entrust it to supernatural phenomenon. One event of the Three Kingdoms was when Cao Cao and his allies encountered the strong and fierce general, Hua Xiong. Hua Xiong challenged every general under the command of Cao Cao and his allies in a one on one match. However, each of the generals sent out by Cao Cao were utterly defeated by Hua Xiong and the morale of Cao Cao’s forces lowered with each defeat. All hope seems to have been lost and Cao Cao and his allies were powerless to stop Hua Xiong. At the critical moment Guan Yu called out and asked Yuan Shao, the commander, to let him challenge Hua Xiong to a duel. At first, Yuan Shao doubted the skills of Guan Yu and forbid him to challenge Hua Xiong, but it was Cao Cao who requested Yuan Shao to let Guan Yu proceed with the challenge. Before Guan Yu set out to the duel, Cao Cao offered him a drink of wine for good luck. But Guan Yu refused the offer and reminded Cao Cao that luck has nothing to do with the outcome of the duel. Instead, Guan Yu trusted his own skill and ability to win the duel and return victorious. On the contrary, people who worship Guan Gong are dependent his luck and supernatural powers. It is ironic that people worship Guan Gong for luck and yet they fail to fail to understand what Guan Gong truly represents.
Another reason why the Chinese population worship Guan Gong even today is because he represented much more than honor, loyalty, and courage. Guan Gong also valued relationships such as friendship and especially brotherhood. As Guan Yu once swore oath to his brothers Liu Bei and Zhang Fei, and he dedicated himself eternally and faithfully to his brothers. Guan Gong also had a son named Guan Ping, who was born and raised during the warring period of the Three Kingdoms. Guan Gong displayed himself as proud and strong father and guided Guan Ping in his long journey to become of the heroes in the Three Kingdoms era. This strong father and son relationship is another important key concept of Confucian philosophy. The Chinese values the Confucian philosophy strongly and thus treasures the father-son relationship. Guan Gong took the bonds between relationships to a whole new level and honoring those bonds was more important than forming them.
The worship of Guan Gong is often done for the purpose of gaining spiritual protection and fortune. In contrast, there are some extreme cases of worship and obsession in the history of modern China. In the early 1900s, China was an unstable political and social country and many battles were fought throughout the land. In these battles, many took the myth of Guan Gong and his heroism as a symbol for their personal victories and accomplishments. The myth of Guan Gong “emphasized the ability to survive violent extremity and overcome the life threatening challenges of war,” which helped many war veterans to announce themselves as patriotic heroes (Thaxton, 2008). For example, Bao Zhilong and his Da Fo village militias, who were under constant danger and struggle to survive. The Bao Zhilong and his Da Fo militias survived the occupation of the Japanese Puppet Army, which helped them overcome the fear of death. During the occupation of the Japanese Puppet Army, many horrific and terrible acts of violence were committed. Bao Zhilong was the leader of the Da Fo militia and he was “captured, beaten, and tortured in the early years of the Japanese Puppet Army occupation (Thaxton, 2008). Certainly Bao Zhilong’s wartime experiences carried over and influenced his regular life style. In addition, Bao Zhilong and his militias used these experiences to claim that they have the blessing of Guan Gong because they have lived and survived hell.
In the later years of the communist party rule, Da Fo and surrounding villages began to rebuild Guan Gong temples and nearly all households had a particular shrine or picture of Guan Gong. The village of Da Fo was ruled by ruthless Maoist who treated the villagers with ill intentions and used cowardly tactics to scare them into submission. Upon hearing the actions of the villagers the Maoist supporters were threatened by the empowerment of Guan Gong because he symbolized the resistance of oppressive rulers. This turn of event signaled danger against the Maoist and brought fear into them if an old tradition was revived into its formal glory. The significance and importance of Guan Gong is clearly portrayed in the case of Da Fo village. Although Guan Gong is a abstract representation of justice, Maoist official still fears the power it has to unite people under one cause.
Another extreme example of Guan Gong worship led many to their deaths because they were blinded by their obsession and could not compromise with reality. The Boxer Rebellion was an anti-foreigner man hunt, where the boxers would organize rallies to kill foreigners and burn churches. Paul Cohen said that the Boxer Rebellion was initiated by droughts, famine, and starvation spreading throughout north China. The people has been suffering through this period began to blame the foreigners for the natural disasters and firmly believed that the gods were angry and caused the sufferings. The boxers claimed to gone through spiritual possession which a god would possess the body of a boxer and grant them the ability to fight against the foreigners. Many boxers would request the spirit Guan Gong to posses the body since Guan Gong was a fierce warrior who does not fear death. Also, boxers believed that during spiritual possessions they would become invulnerable to bullets and other foreign weaponry. The main targets of the boxers were Christians, churches, and Chinese Christians. Essentially, the boxers believe that the Chinese gods were angry with foreign religions and driving out the foreigners would calm the natural disasters. The Boxer rebellion can be considered a religious war between the Chinese gods and the Western God.
The impact and influence of Guan Gong may have played a major role in shaping modern Chinese society and its values. However, there are several new elements being introduced to modern China that has created a new phenomenon for the Three Kingdoms era. The new elements are part of the growing culture of movies, graphic novels, and video games. These elements all belong to the spreading popular cultures which are dominated by the youthful generations.
The Three Kingdoms era has influence many Chinese traditions and infiltrated into the daily lives of Chinese people. Yet it is only a small part of China’s grand history, which expands over five millennia. But what enables the Three Kingdoms to attract the interests of modern generations and what set apart the Three Kingdoms from other Chinese histories? The answer lies within the popular culture of modern China and how it has manipulated history.
One of the most popular and widely used sources of entertainment is through movies. Similar to big budget Hollywood films, China has long entered the movie entertainment and has begun to draw film settings from the Three Kingdoms era. China has been most famous with its martial arts films and other historical films. The most known martial art film produced by China is Crouching Tiger Hidden Dragons, directed by Ang Lee and released in 2000. Another equally famous film is The Last Emperor, which was directed by Bernardo Bertolucci and release in 1987. There are many well known films produced by China, but these two films represent what China portrays best, fighting and history.
The Three Kingdoms is an excellent source of materials for movie directors to utilize. The Three Kingdoms have many historical battles for movie directors to explore, historical characters to be casted by talented actors and actresses, and historical messages to be taught to the younger generations. Using movies as a standard of entertainment allows the director and producers to glorify the Three Kingdoms heroes and make them into something far more symbolic than the original portrayal.
One of the most recent movies that glorify the Three Kingdoms heroes and mock the villains is Red Cliff 1 and Red Cliff 2. The movie takes the Battle of Red Cliff as its base foundation for its plot and characters. The Battle of Red Cliff tells the battle between the kingdom of Wei against the alliance between the kingdom of Shu and Wu. The story unfolds when the ambitious Cao Cao leads a massive army of naval and land troops through south China attempting to pacify both Liu Bei and Sun Quan. Liu Bei sends Zhuge Liang to convince the kingdom of Wu to join forces in order to counter the massive army led by Cao Cao. Once Cao Cao’s army reaches Red Cliff, they set camp directly across from Red Cliff and a stalemate was ensued till the start of battle. During the stalemate, both sides used underhanded tactics to take advantage of the situation. Some tactics were morally wrong and others were brilliantly thought up by genius strategists. The result of the battle favored the kingdoms of Shu and Wu and Cao Cao failed his assault because he overestimated his forces and underestimated his enemies.
Modern technology has enabled the film director and producers to recreate the world of the Three Kingdoms and its entirety previously unachievable. With the talented animators of computer graphics, the film was able to demonstrate the exciting battles of Red Cliff. The movie version of Red Cliff is more exciting and vivid compared to reading books about the battle of Red Cliff. Also, by casting actors and actresses who are able to carry out the roles of the Three Kingdoms heroes provides the audiences a visual representation of the heroes and villains they admire and hate. Movies also give the audiences the power to be creative and let their own thoughts run wildly. Unlike reading books, the readers must use their own imagination to picture scenes described in the pages. But movies depict the scenes for the viewers and allow the viewers to use their imagination for other thoughts. In addition, viewers who have already read the books of the Three Kingdoms will appreciate the movies greatly because it visualizes the imaginations the readers have already conjured up.
The movie Red Cliff is separated into two parts, the first half introduces the story and its characters and the latter half rewards the viewers with an epic battle between the warring kingdoms. Now let us discuss the finer details of the movie and the intricate messages behind the scenes. In the first several minutes of Red Cliff, the movie has already established its villains and heroes. Cao Cao was portrayed as the traitor and the main villain of the movie. The early scenes depict Liu Bei’s forces retreating and trying to protect the citizens of Han who are being pursued by the forces of Cao Cao. Zhuge Liang requests Liu Bei to send reinforcements to defend against Cao Cao’s forces but Liu Bei stressed the importance of protecting the citizens and denied Zhuge Liang’s request. Moments later the movie shows the soldiers of Shu lined up in formation and charged Cao Cao’s forces one row after another to buy time for the Han peasants to escape. Without fearing death, each individual soldier charged towards their doom and displayed tremendous courage and self sacrifice.
Immediately following the battle between Liu Bei and Cao Cao forces, the movie shows Guan Yu almost killing Cao Cao. Guan Yu was captured and stood his ground in the face of Cao Cao and would not kneel even when soldiers tried to force Guan Yu to kneel. However, Cao Cao does not denounce Guan Yu but released him from capture and praised his strength and courage. The celebrated Guan Yu has lived up once again to his reputation in the early sections of the movie and foreshadowing his greatness in the latter sections.
Another hero the movie glorifies early on is Zhao Yun, a young and fierce general loyal to Liu Bei’s cause. Zhao Yun displays his strength when he returns to a village trying to rescue Liu Bei’s two wives and his son. The general rushed into the mist of enemies and was able to secure the baby but unfortunately was not able to save the wives. While carrying the baby, Zhao Yun single handily fought his way through enemy soldiers and return to Liu Bei with the baby. In the movie, Liu Bei receives his son and praises Zhao Yun of his courage and bravery. In contrast, the book had an incredibly different situation and the reaction Liu Bei had towards Zhao Yun was most moving. In the books, when Zhao Yun brought the baby back to Liu Bei, Liu Bei received his son and announced that his son’s life almost cost the life of a great general. Liu Bei then abruptly tosses his son aside, but luckily Zhao Yun was there to catch his son before hitting the ground. Upon seeing Liu Bei’s reactions, Zhao Yun was deeply moved and swore eternal loyalty to his lord. This is significant because the relationship between master and subject is not limited to its external meaning but the true nature of the relationship. The message here describes the relationship between the master and the subject and how both sides need to respect and honor each other.
The majority of Red Cliff 1 was focusing on the dialogues between Zhuge Liang and Zhou Yu. As mentioned earlier in Chinese theatre, Zhuge Liang and Zhou Yu accept challenges from each other to prove who the better strategist is. Both individuals began to form various strategies to counter the massive army of Cao Cao and kept the viewers in suspense until Red Cliff 2 came out.
Red Cliff 2 was released on January of 2009 continuing from Red Cliff 1 released on July 2008. In the second half of Red Cliff, all the planning and strategies were put into action and it did not disappoint. The film reintroduces some of the major scenes from the previous movie and immediately sets the viewers back to the main story. Red Cliff 2 begins with the encampment of Cao Cao becoming infected with a typhoid epidemic. The soldiers become very sickly and with each passing day more are joining among the ranks. The new development in Cao Cao’s camp was relayed back to Zhou Yu and others. Upon receiving this news, many thought it was the perfect time to launch a full scale assault on Cao Cao’s forces. However, Zhou Yu declared that it was unethical and not gentlemen behavior to surprise attack and take advantage of the situation. On the other hand, Cao Cao ignored ethics and ordered his men to send the dead infected bodies to the enemy camp. Cao Cao hoped that the dead bodies would infect his enemies and cripple their strength but more importantly their morality. Adding to Cao Cao malevolence and disregard of human lives, Cao Cao enjoyed a exquisite banquet with his generals and soldiers. On the opposite side, Liu Bei and Sun Quan’s soldiers were affected by the disease along with local peasants. Also, a funeral and mourning service was held for the dead soldiers, which they burn to stop the spreading. Director John Woo switches scenes back and forth between the celebration of Cao Cao and the mourning of for the dead soldiers. This technique helped stir up the emotions of the viewers, expressing anger and disgust towards Cao Cao. It also gave sympathy for Liu Bei and Sun Quan’s forces and gave them a strong reason to defeat Cao Cao.
Eventually, Liu Bei withdraws his forces from the battlefield and retires home. Taking advantage of the situation Cao Cao sends an old friend of Zhao Yu to persuade them to surrender. Once again Cao Cao is portrayed as an evil villain who does not show mercy or emotion as long as he accomplishes the things he desire. Before the arrival of the negotiator, Zhou Yu and Zhuge Liang challenged each other to accomplish monstrous tasks. Zhao Yu promised to have Cao Cao’s two main naval commanders killed before the battle and Zhuge Liang promised to gather 100,000 arrows within three days. Zhou Yu knowing the friend personally set up a trap to trick him into believing that Cao Cao’s two naval generals were plotting to rebel. When the negotiator returns to Cao Cao and presents him with the traitorous letter, Cao Cao lost his temper and executed the two generals. Zhou Yu brilliantly predicted that he could fool his old friend and Cao Cao’s short temper would result in great success.
Meanwhile, Zhuge Liang only having three days to prepare 100,000 arrows seemed almost impossible. But using his expertise, Zhuge Liang perfectly predicted that on the third day there would be heavy fog and planned to use the fog to his advantage. Zhuge Liang took 20 ships with him and covered the ships with straw and straw figures. When Cao Cao’s forces saw some of the boats they thought they were being attacked by the enemy. Thus, Cao Cao’s forces fired thousands of arrows in the general director of the ships trying to kill anyone aboard those ships. Using the fog as a cloak and shield from the eyes of the enemy forces allowed Zhuge Liang to remain safe and gathering thousands of arrows from the enemies. Ultimately, both Zhou Yu and Zhuge Liang fulfilled their promise and gained an edge against Cao Cao. John Woo does an excellent job recreating Zhuge Liang and Zhou Yu’s achievements in battle and satisfying the viewer’s entertainment.
With this in mind, John Woo saves the best for last, the actual battle of Red Cliff. The viewers are suspended on the edge of their seats waiting anxiously for the result and conclusion of the movie. Even though, many of the viewers already know the outcome of the battle they still cling on to the hope that the good guys will win in the end. The final and most crucial step to victory is the knowledge of the weather on the eve of battle. However, on the eve of battle the winds favored Cao Cao’s forces and more time was needed for Sun Quan’s forces. Thus, Zhou Yu’s wife Xiao Qiao travels to Cao Cao’s encampment and requests to perform a tea ceremony. Cao Cao accepted the offer and wasted precious time with Xiao Qiao and her tea ceremony. This delay made possible by Xiao Qiao allowed Sun Quan and his force to initiate the assault on Cao Cao’s naval fleet. Finally with winds in favor of Sun Quan’s force they were able to burn a path through Cao Cao’s fleet. The trick Zhuge Liang and Zhou Yu had was the return of Liu Bei’s forces which surrounded the encampment of Cao Cao and left him with nowhere to retreat. Forced into a corner, Cao Cao and his men fought to the very end but were ultimately unable to defeat the combined strength of the alliance.
Cao Cao, the main villain of the story, was finally defeated and peace was brought back to Red Cliff. However, John Woo’s message revealed that even if the good guys won in the end it does not change the fact that many lives were sacrificed in the process. Zhou Yu said it himself that both sides have lost and there was no true victor. Both movies attracted many viewers because it showed that good will always defeat evil and that many heroes of the Three Kingdoms were courageous and honorable except for Cao Cao. Heroes like Guan Yu, Zhang Fei, Zhou Yu, Zhao Yun, Zhuge Liang, and many others who would sacrifice everything to defend their homeland and honor. This is the message sent out by director John Woo, believing that using traditional history to bring back traditional values among modern China.
Movies are a great form of entertainment and a method to educate the viewers about the history and characters of the Three Kingdoms. However, it is not the only method used to educate people. There are an endless number of possibilities out there one can use to spread the message and history of the Three Kingdoms.
One unexpected place the Three Kingdoms have influenced is through trading card games. The first trading card game that popularized generations of card games afterwards was Magic: The Gathering. The game was first released on August 5th, 1993 and quickly gained popularity and recognition. The game centers on the imagination of the fantasy realm and creatures alike. With the growing popularity of Magic: The Gathering and its success among players in the West, the company began to target markets in Asia. Thus, the creation of Portal: Three Kingdoms, a separate set of cards featuring events and characters of the Three Kingdoms. Every card was illustrated by a different Chinese artist and each card represented a specific event or character of the Three Kingdoms.
The slogan for the Three Kingdoms set used by the company said “A new hero has arrived in the Three Kingdoms - you. From the Peach Garden Oath to the Battle of Red Cliffs and beyond, the intrigue and strife of this turbulent, epic period are yours to relive. History is in your hands.” The slogan encourages people who love the Three Kingdoms to purchase the products because it allows the players to control the outcome of battles. Since it is a game played by two or more players, players can choose to play as Shu, Wei, and Wu and alter the outcome of battles with their own hands literally. This gives the players a sense of freedom and control over specific events of the Three Kingdoms. For example, if certain players wanted the Kingdom of Shu to win then they would play as that kingdom and defeat the other two remaining kingdoms.
On the side note, players who choose to play Magic: The Gathering while using the Three Kingdoms card set are directly influenced and exposed to the history. The history may not be accurate but players are being exposed to it nonetheless, and occasionally some players will develop interests and research the Three Kingdoms. Products like the Three Kingdoms trading card games allow younger generations of Chinese and non-Chinese to experience the epic saga of the Three Kingdoms and all its glory.
Another form of entertainment that is used to retell the story of the Three Kingdoms is through graphic novels and comics. Graphic novels and comics are very different from each other and most people tend to believe that they are the same. Fortunately, there are essential differences between the two and the differences can be easily explained. First, graphic novels are usually spread out into multiple volumes and they all lead to a final conclusion. Also, all the events shown in multiple volumes of the graphic novels are important story build up for the finale. Second, graphics novels have more story and character background information than comics. On the other hand, comics are short and simple stories, usually containing comic relief and a dramatic conclusion. Characters within a comic usually lack the detail and attention compared to characters in graphic novels. Finally, comics are a quick and short way of entertaining its readers and graphics novels are for individuals who enjoy a long story.
Graphic novels can be a great medium for retelling the story of the Three Kingdoms. Since, graphic novels can be surprising accurate and detailed to the original books of the Three Kingdoms. Recently, two celebrated cartoonists Liang Xiaolong and Chen Weidong has published a set of 20 volume graphic novels depicting the stories and characters of the Three Kingdoms. The artists are part of the Tianjin based Shenjie Cartoon Studio, and the goal of the studio is to popularize classic Chinese literature by adapting them into graphic novels (Xinhua, 2008). Aside from the Romance of the Three Kingdoms the studio is working on the adaptation of other works such as Outlaws of the Marsh, Journey to the West, and The Dream f the Red Chamber. The graphics novels were drawn with traditional Chinese painting techniques and traditional Chinese aesthetic concepts, but more importantly it taught the history of the Three Kingdoms. The mixture of painting techniques, reading style, and historical context creates a graphic novel unlike anything else, which is why graphic novels are able to attract so many new readers.
In contrast, comics do not have the artistic achievements of the graphic novel or stylized reading. However, comic are easily accessible on the internet, simple to read, and contains comic relief. Comics on the internet are usually published by independent artists, thus the art may not be on par with professional graphic novel artists. But that is why some viewers prefer comics over graphic novels because it does not follow any standard that graphic novels do. Also, graphic novels are published professionally and it limits the artists’ imagination to create something unique. On the other hand, comics do not follow the standards as graphic novels and artists have the freedom to be creative in their approach to retell the story. For example, there is one website dedicated to the Three Kingdoms and retells the story with weekly comics. The story unfolds a limited amount of historical information and is accompanied by modern humor. In the second issue of the online comic, it retells the events of why the Han dynasty fell. There are five panels to the comic and each panel reveals one specific event leading to the fall of the Han. The issue is titled “Fallen Han Dynasty” and it says “Anyway…in 180 AD, the Han Dynasty was declining by…Corruption…natural disasters…famines, and…Sony Playstation 2…” Corruption, natural disasters, and famines did ravage the land of the Han, but Sony Playstation 2 did not. This is the comic relief provided by internet comics and a reader enjoys these comics because they are hilarious and entertaining.
The Three Kingdoms has found new mediums to retell its tale to the younger generations. Graphic novels and comics are the gateway to connecting the new generation to their ancient traditions and values. Graphic novels help the youth realize the greatness of the Three Kingdoms through artistic and lavish drawings that captures the attention and awe of China’s youth. Also, comics are supporting the efforts of graphic novels with its sense of humor and clever captions.
Speaking of adaptations of the Three Kingdoms, there is another platform that is very popular among modern Chinese people. This platform is the adaptation of the Three Kingdoms through television series. The Chinese people have always been fascinated with television series because television series provide an escape from the real world and immerse the viewers into an alternate world. Many viewers are drawn to these television series because they show how wonderful and magnificent worlds outside of reality are. Since television series have become very popular among the Chinese population, the Chinese Central Television saw this opportunity and created the television series called “Romance of the Three Kingdoms.” The television series runs an astonishing 84 episodes and each episode lasts 44 minutes. The series was created with the help of 1000 production team which took a total of four years. The series casted more than 400,000 actors and actresses and all every battle scenes were filmed in real time. The “Romance of the Three Kingdoms” television series is still one of the most expensive and extensive series ever created by the Chinese Central Television.
The “Romance of the Three Kingdoms” television series spans the entire length and story of the Three Kingdoms books. Many dialogues of the series are taken directly from the books because it creates authenticity. The attention given to each event and character suggests the importance of the Three Kingdoms history and it would be unthinkable to make a mistake. Every event of the Three Kingdoms is decorated elaborately making it as believable to the actual events. Every detail of the characters were portrayed, their clothing, appearance, and personalities are all brilliantly acted out by talented actors and actresses.
Although, the television series may not be an accurate depiction of the actual events but it captures the essence and spirit of the Three Kingdoms. On the contrary, the series is based on the Three Kingdoms books written by Luo Guanzhong. Since, the book is considered a novel the series cannot be called inaccurate or wrong because the book itself contains fictional information. Thus, the television series cannot be blamed for any inaccurate depiction because the series closely follows the descriptions given by the book.
The Three Kingdoms television series was a great success because it stayed true to the story and characters of the period. Many fans enjoyed the series since it was the first television series that created in the image of the Three Kingdoms. The television series is one step down from its movie counterpart and some people prefer the television series over the movie. Movies are usually ranged from a time limit of one and a half hour to three hours, and only a limited amount of information can be shown in that time. In contrast, the television series is told through multiple episodes, which allows the Three Kingdoms story to be unfolded with as much information as possible. In addition, the movie Red Cliff is catered to the general audience and the movie does not use classical Chinese speech. On the other hand, the television series uses classical Chinese, which any true fan of the Thee Kingdoms would appreciate. Nonetheless, the “Romance of the Three Kingdoms” television series, released in 1994 sparked a new wave of enthusiasm.
However, there were positive and negative responses to the Three Kingdoms television series. The series was praised by experts and general audiences alike that it was faithful to the original novel. As mentioned previously, the settings, conversations, costumes, events, and characters were all portrayed to that particular period of time. The most important aspect of the television series was that it was able to highlight all the plots and stories of the novel. Also, the series was able to filter out the extra dialogues that were unrelated to the main theme of each story. All in all, the television series achieved a remarkable balance between the narration of the story and military conflicts (Besio, 2007).
Kimberly Besio and Constantine Tung pointed out that there were four main criticisms of the Three Kingdoms television series. First, the series does not reveal the important themes of the original novel to the viewers. Second, the series fails to provide a methodical depiction of the society of the time. Third, it was great at describing the external characteristic of the story but falls short of revealing the deeper messages of the story. Finally, experts argued that the story was over simplified and some of the historical events were misleading. Besio and Tung criticized the television series for paying too much attention to the “historical reality” but overlook the novel’s romantic style and legendary color. Some critics prize and treasure the blend of realism and romantic style of the novel. Thus, criticizing the television series for its lack of romantic style since it preferred the path of realism.
Nevertheless, the “Romance of the Three Kingdoms” television series had major social impacts on the Chinese society. Since the Three Kingdoms novel and other classical works has shrunk in popularity and size, the television series was created for the purpose of reviving the classical masterpieces. The “Romance of the Three Kingdoms” was also able to create new role models and idols for the Chinese population. From mid to late 1900s, Chinese society had a constant shift of role models and idols. The Chinese Communist Party used various propagandas to create role models who were either political or patriotic to the Chinese Communist Party. Likewise, the “Romance of the Three Kingdoms” had a tremendous impact on the Chinese people and gave them new role models and idols they could look up to. By the late 1900s, characters like Guan Yu, Zhuge Liang, and Zhao Yun were common names of role models. Children, adult, and seniors all looked up to the ideals, values, and personalities of each character. The television series spawned a new Three Kingdoms wave all over China and the social implications will continue to gain momentum as time passes (Besio, 2007).
The Three Kingdoms adaptation was not stopped there, and it continued to find its way through other forms of media. One of these media is the Japanese form of animated cartoons, or widely known by the name of anime. The Japanese anime culture has become a worldwide phenomenon and it continues to grow at an exponential rate. The Japanese marketing has discovered that if they create a Three Kingdoms anime it would be very successful especially in China and with other fans around the world. Thus, the Japanese released a 47 episodes series and three animated movies based on the Three Kingdoms story. The animated series follow the story of Liu Bei and his two sworn brothers after the collapse of the Han Dynasty. Similar to the “Romance of the Three Kingdoms” television series released in China, the anime series is essentially the identical to the live action series.
The animated series may not be as grand or epic compared to the live action series, but it delivers the satisfaction and story of the Three Kingdoms. There are numerous advantages and countless disadvantages of anime than live action. Anime does not require a large and extensive production crew, decreasing the amount of money needed for production. Also, Production mishaps and mistakes can be easily changed, while live action series needs to reshoot the entire scene. The most important aspect of anime is that the younger generations find more interests in anime than live action and it is important to educate the youth about their history and culture. Although, anime is not part of Chinese culture it has influenced Chinese youth greatly.
The disadvantage of anime is that it does not possess the same humane characteristics of live action. For example, Japanese anime characters are casted by talented voice actors who are able to bring out all the emotions and personalities. Nevertheless, it is unable to achieve the same effects of a physical actor or actress who pour their heart into their roles creating a mirror image of the characters. The anime series only lasts for 47 episodes, which is significantly less than the live action. Each episode is 20 to 24 minutes long and that is not enough time to fully retell some events. The duration of the anime series greatly hinders its ability to retell the story of the Three Kingdoms, but the live action is able to retell the story at greater lengths.
Japanese animation may not have the same recognition as other forms of entertainment, but it is increasingly becoming the next popular media among youths. Many twenty-first century Chinese youths have lost their connection with China’s heritage and history. Nowadays, the young generation desire material goods and a luxurious life style. Most of them do not have the same patience or attention as previous generations did. Therefore, anime can be used to ignite the youths and remind them of their vast and rich Chinese heritage.
Speaking of unexpected influences, the Japanese has found another method of educating today’s youth about the Three Kingdoms. This new form of education is through the interactive world of video games. The video game industry is the fast growing industry in the world and it has a huge community with millions of members. The origin of video game can be traced back to the mid 1900s, when video games only consisted of dots and vectors. Video games in the twenty-first century are now multi-million dollar projects and Hollywood quality productions. The video game industry has already surpassed the music industry in sales and numbers since 2007, and it looks to surpass the movie industry in the next few years. Video games are the most popular form of entertainment because it allows the players to interact with the game and it rewards the players for their actions.
Taking advantage of the video game industry and its market, a Japanese company called Koei released games based on the Three Kingdoms story. Koei develops and publishes video games and was established in 1978. They are well known for publishing historical stimulation games such as the “Romance of the Three Kingdoms.” Koei originally produced their first “Romance of the Three Kingdoms” game for the Amiga computer entertainment system in late 1980s. The game is a turn based strategy game, where the player will control one of the three kingdoms and conquer their way to victory. Koei continues to release sequels of their game since was able to win numerous awards. Since the release of the first game, there have been over 50 “Romance of the Three Kingdoms” games release up till 2007.
The success of the turn based strategy game allowed Koei to turn their attention to other projects. One of these projects that matured and became the symbol of Koei is the “Dynasty Warriors” franchise. The “Dynasty Warriors” games still use the Three Kingdoms as its setting and plot, but the stories are altered to fit the game. Dynasty Warriors are action based games where the player will take control of some historical general and fight their way through hundreds of enemy units. The basic mechanics of the game is that the players will choose one famous Three Kingdoms character and fight his or her way through missions. Upon completion of every mission, the game character will gain experience, level up, and acquire new abilities to aid them in future missions.
Since the first release of “Dynasty Warriors” video game back in 1997, on the Playstation home entertainment system, the franchise has been known for its lavish and exaggerated character designs. Similar to the elaborate costumes of Chinese theatre, the video game character designs has the traditional style mix with modern fashion. As the years passed by, new gaming consoles such as Microsoft’s Xbox 360 and Sony’s Playstation 3 allows game developers to create more exaggerated character designs. These new game consoles are able to handle more polygons, which are the basic structures used to create characters in video games, allowing game developers to create more detailed design than previous consoles would allow.
The latest version of “Dynasty Warriors” has some of the most creative and detailed character design out of all other “Dynasty Warriors” games. For instance, Guan Yu, the most revered and well known character of the Three Kingdoms was presented in the game with equal conviction. His character is designed with a strong, firm, and fierce face but also has the gentleness of a merciful warrior. His figure is balance, his height is overwhelming, his shoulders are board, and his clothing is equally impressive. He wears a golden breastplate and the strap is attached with a dragon head buckler. Guan Yu also wears a ferocious golden dragon head buckler on his belt and holding his famous Green Dragon Crescent Blade (青龍偃月刀) with his right hand. Also, Guan Yu is designed with shorter and spiked hair and he has his famous great long black beard. In addition, Guan Yu does not appear to be wearing lots of armor. In fact he appears to be wearing the least amount of armor, glorifying Guan Yu’s strength and ability to defeat his enemies with minimum amount of armor.
Some of the character designs such as Guan Yu, Fang Fei, and Liu Bei are not as exaggerated as other characters. For example, all the female character designs are very revealing which is the exact opposite of traditional Chinese culture. Take for example, Sun Shang Xiang, the only daughter of the Sun family and was later wed to Liu Bei. Sun Shang Xiang’s costume in the game is very revealing and is mixed with modern fashions. She wears an orange and yellow extended bra embedded with patterns of flowers and from her shoulders are attached long embellish sleeves. She wears a red and orange short skirt with flower patterns and her legs are covered with something similar to leg warmers. Finally, she wears orange sandals with a large yellow flower on the straps of the sandal. For anyone who has read the original Three Kingdoms novel or familiar with Chinese history, they would argue that Sun Shang Xiang’s character costume is extremely outrageous and her actual character would never have come close to wearing anything like the game. Other female characters like Yue Ying, Zhen Ji, and Xiao Qiiao have similar revealing costumes. But the most sexual and exotic costume belong to Diao Chan, who has by far the most sex appealing outfit.
Why Koei choose to designed female characters with such revealing outfits and kept the male outfits rather conservative? It is almost entirely related to the structure of the gaming industry. Unfortunately, the gaming industry is composed mostly of male gamers and there are only a handful of female gamers. This is the reason why many game companies try to include female characters exposing as much skin as possible. As the market shows, a game that includes revealing female characters will be able to sell among a male dominate industry. Sadly, it has spoiled the Three Kingdoms female characters and the impression of those female characters will never be the same again.
Interesting, the “Dynasty Warriors” game provide the players with alternative endings for characters they play through the story mode. For example, Liu Bei and his faction were defeated by their opposition. But when players beat the game with Liu Bei, Koei creates an altered ending hypothesized what might have happened if Liu Bei was the victor. Each and every character has their own distinctive and unique ending, some of them overlap with one another but most of them were entirely created for the sole purpose of the game. These hypothesized and fictional endings may confuse and distort players with the actual history but it is interesting to see those outcomes. In addition, players are able to pick from an abundant of heroes and each hero has the strength equal to one thousand men, literally. Player controlled heroes are able to defeat the entire enemy forces single handedly and lets the players have the sense of how great those heroes were in historically. Although, many female characters in the games were not warriors or fought in battle, they were still playable characters in the games because they were important historical figures.
The “Dynasty Warriors” games were able to rekindle enthusiasm among new Chinese generation detached from their rich heritage and history. Many Chinese youths who play games like “Romance of the Three Kingdoms” and “Dynasty Warriors” tend to research about the Three Kingdoms to recount if the information provided by the games is accurate. When those gamers discover that the information is incorrect, they will proceed to find the correct information and inevitably realize their rich history. Some gamers who have become so obsessed with the Three Kingdoms that they have created their own websites dedicated to the history. Over time, these sites have developed a large community and a network of other gamers who are as equally interested in the history. An important feature of these sites is the forums, a virtual bulletin board where users can have discussions about anything and everything. There are many inspiring stories from gamers who knew nothing about the Three Kingdoms and through Japanese video games has discovered it and eventually fallen in love with it. Being able to read such inspiring and encouraging stories is definitely heading in the right direction of popularizing the classical literature.
The classical literature of the Three Kingdoms has traversed a long and troubling road to be remembered by generation after generation. The classical novel has started a trend of popular culture and has developed a worldwide phenomenon and created a huge foundation of fan base. The Three Kingdoms novel has been able to influence and create many famous and well known plays for the Chinese theatre. Chinese theatre plays are able to dazzle the audience with its glamorous costumes and unique singing style. The plays are catered to the older generations who enjoy their traditional heritage and culture. For the new generation, these classical plays attempts to charm the audiences and establish a new generation of fans. Not only were classical Chinese theatres plays influenced by the Three Kingdoms period, and it started its own deity worship and had a huge amount of religious followers. Guan Yu is the most celebrated and revered hero of all Three Kingdoms and is best known for his actions through history. Worshippers of Guan Gong pray to him because they believe Guan Yu is able to protect and bless them with everything he represents. Guan Gong is also known as the God of War, and some people worship him because they want to be able to win battle. However, those worshippers mistake the true meaning and ideal Guan Gong represents. The worship of Guan Gong was distinctive from other forms of religious worship because Guan Gong represented the embodiment of Confucian philosophy. Since, the majority of Chinese society follows Confucian values, Guan Gong and what he represented became tremendously appealing to the general public. The classical Three Kingdoms novel has gradually diminished its reputation among Chinese people and the Chinese central government stepped in to revitalize its existence. The Chinese central government was able to transform the classical novel into an epic television series that was seen by millions of Chinese viewers. After the release of the television series, the Three Kingdoms held a new place in the minds and hearts of many Chinese. The series was the first step towards popularizing the classical, where it can find its place in modern China. The sophistication of technology allowed innovative groups of people to create new forms of media and entertainment for the public. The most unexpected and surprising popular form of entertainment came from Japan. The rise of video games enabled the Japanese to barrow the Three Kingdoms story and turned it into an interactive experience anyone can enjoy. Little did the Japanese or Chinese would know the video game industry have put the reputation and story of the Three Kingdoms in the hearts of many young Chinese. Essentially, video games are stirring the interests and curiosity of gamers around the world. Indirectly, the video game industry has popularized the classical novel and reconnected the new generation of Chinese to their rich and vast history.
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